Tropentag, September 16 - 18, 2026, Göttingen "Towards multi-functional agro-ecosystems promoting climate-resilient futures"

Hidden child labour use and gender in coca economies: Evidence from Peru

¹Hiroshima University, Graduate School of Innovation and Practice for Smart Society, Peru
²Ritsumeikan University, College of Economics, Japan
³Hiroshima University, The IDEC Institute

Abstract

Child labour in illicit crop production remains a critical challenge characterised by informality, vulnerability, and weak institutional presence. Under ILO Convention 182 and SDG 8.7, child labour is classified among the worst forms of labor; however, its prevalence in coca-producing regions remains poorly understood. In these regions, coca functions as a key cash crop and survival strategy for fragile households operating under economic and environmental uncertainty. Coca economies rely on family-based labour systems with gendered roles, often involving children. In Peru, the ENACO state monopoly limits legal commercialisation, and recent policy tightening since February 2023 has further constrained legal absorption, potentially affecting labour allocation and policy effectiveness. Existing studies rely on self-reported data, which may be biased in high-risk and stigmatized environments. To address this limitation, this study implements an original survey experiment using a list experiment with 734 households in La Convención, Peru. Indirect estimates are compared with direct questioning to identify underreporting of child labour use and gender differences, with robustness assessed through balance tests and randomisation inference. Results show substantial and strongly gendered underreporting. Among female-headed households, prevalence is 32.7% using the list experiment versus 1.3% from direct responses (misreporting: 31.4 percentage points), while no significant difference is observed among male-headed households. At the aggregate level, prevalence is 22.3% versus 5.5% (misreporting: 16.8 percentage points). Additional evidence reveals greater dispersion in female well-being, consistent with heterogeneous and fragile living conditions. These findings provide the first indirect evidence that child labour use in coca economies is systematically concealed, particularly among female-headed households. Indirect measurement and gender-sensitive approaches are essential for improving policy design. In contexts where coca functions as a survival-oriented cash crop, understanding hidden labour dynamics is critical for designing effective and inclusive development policies.

Keywords: Child labour use, coca, gender, list experiment, Peru, vulnerability

Contact Address: Juan Diego Zamudio Padilla, Hiroshima University, Graduate School of Innovation and Practice for Smart Society, 1-5-1 kagamiyama, 739-8529  higashi-hiroshima, Peru, e-mail: jzjzamudiopgmail.com